Module 4

Harvesting the wind

Traditional fuels are running out in many parts of the world. For example, the size of the desert regions is increasing in areas such as the Sahara Desert. There is less vegetation for fuel. In other parts of the world, fossil fuels (oil, gas, coal) are the mainstay of modern societies. They too are being rapidly depleted. Burning of plants, oil, gas and coal creates carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. This also contributes to pollution and to global warming (Oram, 2013). 

As a consequence countries and people are looking for sustainable low cost resources. Some countries such as New Zealand have abundant natural resources in the form of water and geothermal energy. However, building large scale industrial power generation plants is expensive, requires much resources (e.g. steel, concrete) and energy intensive activity to build. Such systems are often controversial. For instance damming natural waterways disrupts aquatic life and the life of other animals such as migratory birds that rely on the natural environment for a habitat and breeding and / or feeding area. It also prevents the use of recreational activities such as kayaking, bush walking and white water rafting (Martin, 2012).

 Although the space taken up by geothermal plants is typically smaller, they too have environmental consequences. For instance, geothermal fields produce large amounts of poisonous metals, such as Arsenic. They also deplete the ground water and are often are at the expense of the spectacular display of natural phenomena such as geysers (Stewart, 2012). Tidal plants may be either on the surface (disrupting the flow of ships and recreational vessels or submarine but the latter still affects marine animals as well (EECA, 2008; Ministry of the Environment, n.d).

As mentioned above, many places do not have such natural resources. Many do not have geothermal reserves nor abundant fresh water with the necessary change in water levels due to the mountainous and hilly terrain and may be landlocked with no tidal flow. Solar (EECA, n.d.) and wind (EECA, 2010) energy represent potential technologies in such regions.

 Both technologies too have limitations. The sun does not always shine and the wind does not always blow. So batteries are usually required to store surplus generation for dark/cloudy periods or still days. I am going to concentrate on wind energy in this report (Ministry of the Environment, n.d.). 5% of New Zealand’s current energy needs are generated from wind energy with the potential for further development. On still days when the wind does not blow enough to generate electricity in wind plants New Zealand has enough stored hydro power in dams to quickly generate additional power needed (EECA, 2010).

 There are concerns though with the environmental impact of wind generation. These impacts include visual and noise pollution (Standards New Zealand 2010).

There are wind plants in places close to human habitation such as Wellington. The picture shows one such large scale wind farm above the Makara Coast in Wellington. This location is very windy and is exposed to salt spray from the Tasman Sea (New Zealand Wind Energy Association, n.d).

Source: West Wind Makara Wind Farm

Other large wind farms may be located from some distance from their customers. For instance Meridiam Energy’s Te Ari wind farm in the Waikato has 28 large wind turbines (pictured below being transported to the location) generates up to 64.4 MW, sufficient energy to power 28,000 homes (Meridian, n.d.).

Source: Te Uku Media Gallery

The value of wind energy can be seen in the world’s most southerly wind farm. The use of wind turbines at Scott Station has reduced the need for oil fueled generators and the possibility of diesel spills in a fragile environment (One News, 2010).

Antarctic wind farm. Source: - ONE News

Video: Antarctic wind farm blows into life at Scott Base

Small power wind plants also have the potential to generate power for small communities (<20kW) and individual dwellings  (5kW). Small wind turbines are most suited to rural settings exposed to strong and consistent wind, and where there is no connection to the electricity network. The cost of such turbines is typically between $10,000 and $15,000 per kW of rated capacity but it may be economical to install them as connecting to the grid can cost as much as $25,000 per kilometre (EECA, 2010). Most such turbines are usually mounted on towers but there are alternatives that are integrated into the roof of the building (EECA, 2010).

Such small scale wind generators have been used in New Zealand for many years. They have to be tested to operate and to be maintained in New Zealand’s harsh windy, often salty environment (Independent Power, n.d).

 Source: Independent Power

Windmills have been used for many centuries for tasks such as drawing water out of the ground and milling flour. 21^st Century technology has improved the designs to allow modern wind turbine generators to operate in many conditions, including windy and marine environments. There is a large range of options to which they may be put. These include wind farms owned and operated by energy companies such as Meridian Energy. They can be used as sustainable alternatives to fossil fuel and can be alternative sources of power generation to their main hydro electric stations. Wind turbines can also be used in remote locations where they provide an economically feasible alternative to building expensive power lines to small communities and individual dwellings. Such installations typically need battery storage to store generated power that is in excess of current needs. The batteries can then be used when there is no wind or the wind speed is too low to allow the turbines to operated to generate electricity. In places connected to the grid grid-connected wind power generators can be used to power homes and businesses and to feed surplus power back into the grid.

 References

EECA (2008) Development of Marine Energy in New Zealand. Retrieved on 15 October 20, 2013 from http://www.eeca.govt.nz/node/6123.

EECA (2010) Wind Energy. Retrieved on 15 October 20, 2013 from http://www.eeca.govt.nz/efficient-and-renewable-energy/renewable-energy/wind-energy-in-nz

EECA (n.d.) Solar Energy. Retrieved on 15 October 20, 2013 from http://www.eeca.govt.nz/efficient-and-renewable-energy/renewable-energy/solar-energy-in-nz

(Independent Power, n.d). Wind Turbines. Retrieved on 19 October 20, 2013 http://www.indepower.co.nz/wind.html

Martin, J (2012). Hydroelectricity - Hydro, 21st century. Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand, Retrieved on 15 October 20, 2013 from http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/hydroelectricity

Meridian (n.d.) Te Uku Retrieved on 19 October 2013 from http://www.meridianenergy.co.nz/about-us/generating-energy/wind/te-uku/

(Ministry of the Environment, n.d.). Case study 3: Issues and barriers in the development of a wave and tidal energy industry. Retrieved on 15 October 20, 2013 from http://www.mfe.govt.nz/publications/oceans/government-interventions-ocean-resources-may06/html/page7.html

New Zealand Wind Energy Association (n.d) West Wind Makara Wind Farm. Retrieved on 19 October 20 http://windenergy.org.nz/nz-wind-farms/operating-wind-farms/project-west-wind

One News (2010) Antarctic wind farm blows into life at Scott Base (January 16 2010). Retrieved on 19 October 20 from http://tvnz.co.nz/national-news/antarctic-wind-farm-blows-into-life-scott-base-3330985

 

Oram, R. (2013). Digging deeper on coal. Sunday Star Times, D24, October 20 2013.

Standards New Zealand (2010) NZS 6808:2010 Acoustics - Wind farm noise. Retrieved on 19 October 20, 2013 from http://shop.standards.co.nz/catalog/6808%3A2010%28NZS%29/view

Stewart, C (2009 ) Geothermal Energy. Te Ara - the Dictionary of New Zealand. Retrieved on 15 October 20, 2013 from http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/geothermal-energy

Module 3

The Ethics of Exploitation vs. Preservation of the Polar Regions.

The polar regions, the Arctic and Antarctic, represent the last relatively unspoilt  regions on earth. However, all kinds of resources elsewhere have been exploited and depleted. The Polar regions have the potential to be tapped for their natural resources. Others argue though that they should be preserved and saved.

Antarctica; untouched and preserved for millions of years, it is now under threat from the exploitation of man. It is a continent almost completely covered by ice, making it one of the most hostile environments on Earth.  Antarctica is home to many organisms, closely linked together in the marine food chains, but there are no humans in permanent residence. However, Antarctica plays an important role in the high demand for resources like oil, minerals and food.  Furthermore, there is a growing interest of Tourism in Antarctica. Yet all of which will come at a high cost to polar region inhabitants, the animals and, in the case of the Arctic, the indigenous people. This leads us to ask ourselves whether the benefits outweigh the consequences of saving Polar Regions from the exploitation of man. Nevertheless many countries have laid claims to parts of Antarctica, although for the most part they are not at present using their territories to extract minerals etc from their environment.

A similar situation exists in the Arctic, although it has no land mass as such. However, like Antarctica, it has mineral resources, namely undersea oil and gas. There is an environmental protection agreement between the eight Arctic nations (Canada, Greenland/Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden and the United States). Concern for the Arctic environment, lead to the formation of the Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy. This was in response to issues with the dumping of radioactive waste and the build up of pollutants (organic pollutants and heavy metals) in the region (Arctic Council, 2012).

Unlike Antarctica the Arctic region contains indigenous peoples. One of the concerns is about the food chain,

 where they are the top predator. Their food sources are endangered by pollutants borne in the air, water and transported on ice sheets. 

Source: Artic Centre

It is estimated that about 4.5 Million of the 13.5 Million people living in the arctic region are indigenous people. They comprise about 40 different ethnic groups, the best know of which is the Inuit. There way of life is under threat by global warming and the melting of the ice cap, pollutants and the exploitation of the Arctic’s mineral resources. Many immigrants have come into some of these territories to exploit the resources. The distinct features of these groups, for example their distinct languages, cultures and traditional livelihoods, such as reindeer herding, fishing and hunting, are under threat (Arctic Center, n.d.). 

The Antarctic Region too is covered by a Treaty, the Antarctic Treaty, first signed in 1959. Its basis is that no one country has rights to the region; that it should be only used for peaceful purposes, such as scientific investigation, the results of which should be exchanged and made freely available (Secretariat of the Antarctica Treaty, n.d.)

Antarctic tourist numbers peaked at more than 45,000, during the 2007-2008 seasons.

Photo Source: Cool Antarctica

 There is a true sense of adventure that Antarctica presents, with its remote and pristine environment and record cold climate; it has attracted hundreds of thousands of travellers since Commercial Antarctic tourism began in the 1950’s. Antarctica can only be accessed by ship or plane, yet it continues to grow as a popular destination for tourists. However, there are many consequences for the environment and the Antarctic animals. Commercial tourism in Antarctica has both a positive and negative effect, depending on your perspective. The positive side comes from an economic point of view, whereas tourism has a negative effect on the environment and causes disruption among the animals that live there. (University of Canterbury,n.d.)

Antarctica is perhaps one of the most fascinating and extreme environments in the world for people, to visit. Tourist numbers have been on a rise since tourism was launched in 1956 with a plane trip for 66 passengers that landed in McMurdo Sound.  Ship cruising is the most popular activity for tourists followed by small boat landing and cruising, which accounted for more than 80% of tourism activity in 2010-11. This activity is said to be worth more than $5 million to New Zealand, but this number has a realised potential to grow to surpass $20 million, estimated to be what the toothfish fisheries are worth to New Zealand. To minimise man’s impact on Antarctica, there are tight regulations that tourism operators must follow. This includes following the Antarctica treaty signed by 12 countries in 1961, including New Zealand. The IAATO (International Association of Antarctic Tour Operators) makes sure that these companies comply by these rules and are run in a sustainable manner, and insures the safety of the environment, Antarctic wildlife and the tourists. (Cool Geography, n.d. /Davison, I, January 14, 2013)

Tourism can threaten Antarctica from an ecological perspective for, Antarctica is one of the most environmentally and biologically delicate areas on Earth. Almost all Antarctic animals rely on krill populations, as it is the primary source of food for many animals,(whales, penguins, small fish, squid) who in turn, fall prey to top predators (leopard seals, killer whales). Moreover, its temperatures which plummet to an all time low of -89.2, means that rubbish can take hundreds of years to break down, and decompose. This problem is further established through the consequences of commercial tourism. Most tourists will usually spend only 6-30 days on their trip to Antarctica, but this effect can really add up when you take into account that more than 34,000 people toured Antarctica between 2012-13 tourist seasons, alone. Numerous problems for the Antarctic environment have occurred including disturbance of the wildlife, mainly penguins, and even more concerning, diesel and oil spills causing water pollution. (Cool Geography, n.d. / Cool Antarctica, n.d.)

 Let us look at some of the specific resources that can or are being exploited. One of the most controversial is that of fishing in the Antarctic waters.

Patagonian Toothfish, Dissostichus eleginoides.

Photo source : Alexander Colhoun - National Science Foundation

The waters surrounding Antarctica has a diverse range of marine animals from mammals, such as seals and whales, to crustaceans, namely krill, and fish, the most recently exploited being toothfish, all interdependent of each other in the Antarctic Ocean Food web.  Fishing is now the main source of exploitation in Antarctica.  The Southern Ocean is one of the least actively fished areas on Earth, due to the costs and risks that fisheries face. Despite this, Antarctic animals are still under threat from socially irresponsible fisheries that do not abide by the fishing catch limits and regulations. Of great concern are the populations of toothfish and krill, both of which play a critical role in the Antarctic food web, and if they were to go extinct, it would have dire consequences for animals both in and outside of Antarctica. (ASOC, n.d.; Cool Antarctica, n.d.)    

The Antarctic and Patagonian toothfish are called “white gold” by toothfish pirates, and have been illegally fished up for hundreds of millions of dollars since the mid 1990s, and the fish sell for around NZ$95 per/kg. The Antarctic and Patagonia toothfish fisheries already appear to be in trouble due to overfishing, (Sydney Morning Herald 2013, Field, 2012).

The same could also be said about the small crustaceans, krill who plays a vital role for life in Antarctica (ASOC, n.d.).

Antarctica has many mineral resources but as the continent is mostly covered by a thick shelf of ice they cannot be exploited with current technology. Any such mining would be uneconomic. However, the prospect of mining in the region has been discussed from time to time. For example, when the issues were raised in the 1980s an addition to the treaty, the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, was added. The signatories to the Antarctic Treaty signed the Madrid Protocol in 1991 banning mining. This is to be reviewed after 50 years, in 2041.

southern ocean fisheries- ANTARCTIC and southern ocean coalition

Photo Source: Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition (n.d).

However, the same natural protection is not the case in the Arctic, where the oil and gas is at relatively shallow depths under the ice (and some not covered in ice as the ice sheet continues to shrink due to global warming.

 Summary:

The Polar Regions are harsh and few people live there, none at all in the Antarctic Polar Region. However, they have the potential to provide resources, such as food and minerals, to a world hungry for such natural resources. They also have the potential to provide sustainable resources, such as tourism, but that too can have its costs. It is important that these regions continue to be protected by treaties and by being respected by the people of all nations.

References

Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition (n.d). Southern Ocean Fisheries. Retrieved on Oct 2 2013 from

http://www.asoc.org/issues-and-advocacy/antarctic-wildlife-conservation/southern-ocean-fisheries 

Arctic Center (n.d.). Arctic Indigenous Peoples Retrieved on Oct 1 2013 from http://www.arcticcentre.org/InEnglish/SCIENCE-COMMUNICATIONS/Arctic-region/Arctic-Indigenous-Peoples 

Arctic Council (2012). Emergency Prevention Preparedness and Response. Retrieved on Oct 2 2013 from http://www.arctic-council.org/eppr/reports/ministerial-direction/ 

Cool Antarctica (n.d.). Human Impacts on Antarctica and Threats to the Environment - Fishing. Retrieved on September 30 from

http://www.coolantarctica.com/Antarctica%20fact%20file/science/threats_fishing_hunting.htm 

Cool Geography (n.d.) Impact of tourism on extreme environments. Retrieved on Oct 2 2013 from

http://coolgeography.co.uk/GCSE/AQA/Tourism/Extreme%20Environments/Extreme%20Impacts.htm 

Darby, A (2013). Ocean pursuit leaves toothfish pirates with nowhere to run.  Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved on October 3 3013 from
http://www.smh.com.au/environment/animals/ocean-pursuit-leaves-toothfish-pirates-with-nowhere-to-run-20130503-2iyl1.html#ixzz2gjuM6MhX 

Davison, I (2013) Tourists drawn to wonders of Antarctic. New Zealand Herald. Retrieved on Oct 4 2013 fromhttp://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=10858934 

Field, M (2012) McMurdo Sound's toothfish population at risk. Fairfax NZ News. Retrieved on September 30 2013 from

http://www.stuff.co.nz/environment/6595293/McMurdo-Sounds-toothfish-population-at-risk 

(Secretariat of the Antarctica Treaty, (n.d.) The Antarctic Treaty. Retrieved on Oct 1 2013 from http://www.ats.aq/e/ats.htm